Subject/Topic This article analyzes the distinction between the concepts of “force in law” (coercion) and “legal force” (hierarchy)—a key problem in modern legal theory, arising from the need to overcome terminological ambiguity and conceptual fuzziness of these categories in doctrine.

Goals/Objectives To identify the essential differences and dialectical interrelationships between the categories of “force in law” and “legal force”; to analyze existing doctrinal approaches to interpreting these concepts; to formulate clear criteria for their distinction; and to determine their functional role in the mechanism for ensuring the effectiveness of legal regulation of social relations.

Methodology The dialectical method revealed the unity and difference of the concepts under study in their systemic interaction; the formal-legal and logical methods defined specific criteria for distinction (source, nature, content, functions); the comparative legal method allowed for an analysis of existing doctrinal approaches in Russian and foreign legal scholarship.

Results/Conclusions The study distinguishes between the categories of “legal force” as an integrative property of the legal system and “legal force” as a formal legal characteristic of normative acts. The authors offer definitions that overcome terminological ambiguity and reveal their dialectical interrelationship. The practical significance of this research lies in the possibility of optimizing rulemaking, improving law enforcement practices, enhancing the effectiveness of legal regulation, and resolving legal conflicts, which significantly contributes to the development of theoretical legal science.

Keywords: legal force, legal force, legal theory, legal system, normative acts, integrative legal understanding, legal regulation, legitimate coercion, hierarchy of legal norms, operation of law.

References:

Kistiakovsky (1998) – Kistiakovsky B.A. Social sciences and law: essays on the methodology of social sciences and the general theory of law [Social’nye nauki i pravo: ocherki po metodologii social’nyh nauk i obshchej teorii prava] // Philosophy and Sociology of Law [Filosofiya i sociologiya prava]. St. Petersburg, 1998. – 704 p.

Reisner (1925) – Reisner M.A. Law: Our law. Someone else’s right. General law [Pravo: Nashe pravo. CHuzhoe pravo. Obshchee pravo] / M. Reisner. — M.: L.: State Publishing House [Gos. izd-vo], 1925. – 275 p.

Cicero (1994) – Cicero M.T. Dialogues [Dialogi]. / Moscow. Nauka [Nauka]. 1994. – 222 p.

Peretersky (1956) – Peretersky I.S. The Digests of Justinian [Digesty YUstiniana]. Moscow: Gosyurizdat [Gosyurizdat], 1956. – 131 p

Kofanov, Tomsinov (1998) – Kofanov L.L., Tomsinov V.A. Institutes of Justinian. Translation from Latin [Institucii YUstiniana. Perevod s latinskogo] / Transl.: Rassner D. – M.: Zertsalo [Zercalo]. 1998. – 400 p.

Kofanov (2002) –Kofanov L.L. Digests of Justinian [Digesty YUstiniana]. Translated from Latin; ed. by L.L. Kofanov. Moscow: Statut [Statut]. 2002. – 584 p.

Akinfieva,Vorontsov (2020) – AkinfievaV.V.,VorontsovS.G.Public,private,civilandcivillaw: the content of conceptsin ancient Romanandmoderndoctrinalsources [Publichnoe, chastnoe, civil’noe i grazhdanskoe pravo: soderzhanie ponyatij v drevnerimskih i sovremennyh doktrinal’nyh istochnikah].//Bulletin of the PermUniversity.Legalsciences [Vestnik Permskogo universiteta. YUridicheskie nauki.].2020.Issue48. pp. 226-247.

Novitsky (1972) – Novitsky I. B. Fundamentals of Roman civil law [Osnovy rimskogo grazhdanskogo prava]. Moscow: Jurid. lit. [YUrist]. 1972. – 296 p. 11.

Senyakin (1997) – Senyakin I.N. Law-making and legislation // Theory of State and law: a course of lectures [Legitimnost’ i legitimaciya pozitivnogo prava: istoriya i sovremennost’]. Edited by N.I. Matuzov and A.V. Malko. Moscow: Lawyer [Vestnik Voronezhskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Seriya: Pravo]. 1997. – 672 p.

Denisenko (2012) – Denisenko V.V. Legitimacy and Legitimization of Positive Law: History and Modernity [Legitimnost’ i legitimaciya pozitivnogo prava: istoriya i sovremennost’]. // Bulletin of the Voronezh State University. Series: Law [Vestnik Voronezhskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Seriya: Pravo.]. 2012. No. 2. – p. 16-27.

Albov, Panchenko (2024) – Albov A.P., Panchenko V.Yu. Sovereignty and public-law regulation in the context of legal culture [Suverenitet i publichno-pravovoe regulirovanie v kontekste pravovoj kul’tury.]. / Modern lawyer [Sovremennyj yurist]. 2024. No. 1 (46). P. 16-28.

Subject/topic This scientific article is devoted to such a result of intellectual activity as a computer program. This work identifies the essential and non-essential components of this object and establishes the sufficiency of protection for each of them.

Goals/objectives After analysing the elements of a computer program, determine which components do not receive adequate legal protection, which may not meet market needs and, as a result, reduce the level of protection for the computer program as a whole, since this object depends on whether all its elements have the necessary protection. The objectives of the article are: to analyse the definition of a computer program; to establish the essential and non-essential elements included in the definition of a computer program and identified by scientific doctrine; to establish the adequacy of protection for the elements; to identify problems; and to formulate proposals for harmonising legislation.

Methodology In preparing this scientific article, the method of analysis was used in relation to computer programs, legal norms were interpreted, a comparative analysis was conducted of elements that are considered by legislators and scientific doctrine to be preparatory materials for computer programs in order to establish similarities and differences, and formal legal and abstract-logical methods were used to formulate a definition of «architecture». The study is based on current legislation regulating issues of intellectual activity results and scientific doctrine related to computer programs, to which the theoretical analysis method was applied.

Results/conclusions It is confirmed that a computer program is a multi-element object, the completeness of protection of which directly depends on the creator’s ability to extend their rights to all its essential elements. A new element of modern computer programs, such as «architecture», is identified, which does not receive the protection it deserves. It is proven that the synthesis of preparatory materials and «architecture», which is currently present, is impossible due to important differences in their legal nature. The article reveals the essence of «architecture», formulates its definition, and also draws attention to the fact that the development of artificial intelligence exacerbates the situation, as this makes the element even more in demand on the market today.

Keywords: results of intellectual activity, computer program, software, computer program elements, architecture.

References:

Revinskiy (2000) – Revinskiy O.V. Legal Aspects of Delimiting Protectable Solutions in the Field of Computer Technologies [Pravovye aspekty otgranicheniya okhranosposobnykh resheniy v oblasti komp’yuternykh tekhnologiy]: thesis … Candidate of Legal Sciences: 12.00.03 / O.V. Revinskiy; Russian Agency for Patents and Trademarks (ROSPATENT), Russian Institute of Intellectual Property (RIIS). – M., 2000. – 144 p.

Sukhanov (2023) – Civil Law [Grazhdanskoe parvo]: textbook: in 4 vols. / ed. by E.A. Sukhanov. – 3rd ed., revised and enlarged. – M.: Statut, 2023. – Vol. 2. – 508 p.

Evdokimov (2015) – Evdokimov R.A. Legal Regulation of Computer Program Protection (Theoretical and Practical Issues) [Pravovoe regulirovanie okhrany komp’yuternykh programm (teoreticheskie i prakticheskie problemy)]: thesis … Candidate of Legal Sciences: 12.00.03 / R.A. Evdokimov; Russian State Academy of Intellectual Property. – M., 2015. – 213 p.

Mochenov (2007) – Mochenov N.Yu. Legal Protection of Computer Programs [Pravovaya okhrana programm dlya EVM]: thesis … Candidate of Legal Sciences: 12.00.03 / N.Yu. Mochenov; Russian State Institute of Intellectual Property. – М., 2007. – 137 p.

Alexanyan (2024) – Alexanyan E.A. Computer programs as an object of industrial property [Programmy dlya EVM kak obyekt promyslennoy sobstvennosti] // International Research Journal [Mezhdunarodny nauchno-issledovatel’skiy zhurnal]. 2024. No. 11 (149). Iss. 11. P. 1-5.

Kryzhanovskaya (2009) – Kryzhanovskaya A.A. Civil Liability for Damage Caused by the Use of Complex Computer Programs [Grazhdansko-pravovaya otvetstvennost’ za vred, prichinennyy v svyazi s ispol’zovaniem slozhnykh programm dlya EVM]: thesis … Candidate of Legal Sciences: 12.00.03 / A.A. Kryzhanovskaya; Institute of Legislation and Comparative Law under the Government of the Russian Federation. – M., 2009. – 174 p.

Subject/Topic This article examines the legal nature of the contract on the transfer of functions of the executive body of company to the Management Company or manager. It examines the legal status of the manager, the relationship of this agreement to an employment contract, a commission agreement, and an agency agreement, as well as the challenges of qualifying such an agreement from a civil law perspective.

Objectives/Task The purpose of this study is to qualify the contract on the transfer of functions of the executive body of company to the management company or manager. The main objectives of the study include examining existing doctrinal and judicial approaches to the qualification of the contract on the transfer of functions of the executive body of company to the management company or manager, and formulating the author’s position on the issue under study.

Methodology The methodological basis of the study includes a range of scientific methods, such as analysis, synthesis, comparison, modeling, and others.

Conclusion The results of the study allow us to conclude that the agreement on the transfer of powers of the executive body to the management organization or manager has a mixed, two-tier nature, where the level of delegation of authority provides the legal basis for the implementation of the management function, and the level of provision of management services specifies the content of the manager’s activities, creating a binding relationship between the parties. It combines two principles: the organizational and legal element, which consists of delegating the powers of the executive body (this level is corporate in nature, as it affects the structure of the legal entity’s bodies and the redistribution of competencies between them), and the binding element, which consists of providing management services. This is its specificity as a special agreement, combining the norms of corporate and civil law.

Keywords: transfer of functions, delegation of authority, sole executive body, management company, manager, corporate governance

References:

1. Oleynik (2015) – Oleynik O.M. Agreement on the transfer of powers of the executive body of the company: problems of qualification and application [Dogovor o peredache polnomochij ispolnitel’nogo organa obshchestva: problemy kvalifikacii i primeneniya] //Law [Zakon]. 2015. No 12. pp. 150-158.

Stepanov (2000) – Stepanov D.I. Company managing a business entity [Kompaniya, upravlyayushchaya hozyajstvennym obshchestvom] // Economy and law [Hozyajstvo i pravo]. 2000. No 10. pp. 60-73.

Kozlova (2004) – Kozlova N.V. Civil status of bodies of a legal entity [Grazhdansko-pravovoj status organov yuridicheskogo lica]//Economy and law [Hozyajstvo i pravo]. 2004. No 8. pp. 42-60.

About limited liability companies [Ob obshchestvah s ogranichennoj otvetstvennost’yu]: Federal Law of the Russian Federation of February 8, 1998 No. 14 // Collection of Legislation of the Russian Federation [Sobranie zakonodatel’stva RF]. 16.02.1998. No 7. Art. 785.

Kulakov (2010) – Kulakov V.V. Obyazatel’stvo i oslozhenie ego struktury v grazhdanskom prave Rossii: monografiya [Obligation and complication of its structure in Russian civil law: monograph]. 2nd ed., revised and supplemented. Moscow: RAP. 2010. 238 p.

Belov (2004) – Belov V.A. Arrangement of transactions by business companies made by their managers (based on trusts example) [Oformlenie sdelok hozyaystvennyh obshchestv, sovershayemyh ih upravlyayushchimi (na primere dovyerennostey)] // Legislation [Zakonodatel’stvo]. 2004. No. 10. Pp. 21-28.

Rubeko (2005) – Rubeko G.L. Executive bodies of joint-stock companies: features of legal status [Ispolnitel’nye organy aktsionernykh obshchestv: osobennosti pravovogo statusa] // Economy and Law [Hozyaistvo i pravo]. 2005. No. 12. Pp. 28-34.

Shitkina (2021) – Shitkina I.S. (Ed.) Scientific-practical commentary to the Federal Law “On Limited Liability Companies”: vol. 2 [Nauchno-prakticheskij kommentarij k Federal’nomu zakonu «Ob obshestvah s ogranichennoj otvetstvennost’yu»: t. 2]. Moscow: Statut Publ., 2021. 486 p.

Martirosyan (1996) – Martirosyan E.R. Legal nature of relations between an organization’s head and its property owner [Pravovaya priroda otnoshenij mezhdu rukovoditelem organizacii i sobstvennikom ee imushchestva] // State and Law [Gosudarstvo i pravo]. 1996. No. 10. Рp. 48-53.

Sukhanov (2000) – Sukhanov E.A. Agreement on trust management of property [Dogovor doveritelnogo upravlenija imushhestvom] // Bulletin of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation [Vestnik Vysshego Arbitrazhnogo Suda Rossijskoj Federacii]. 2000. No. 1. Pp. 81-94.

Ananieva (2021) – Ananieva A.A. Individual contractual regulation of transferring powers to a manager [Individual’noe dogovornoe regulirovanie peredachi polnomochij upravlyayushchemu] // Russian Justice [Rossiyskoe pravosudie]. 2021. No. 8. Pp. 25-33.

Ilyushina (2022) – Ilyushina M.N. The problem of transferring powers of a single-executive body in limited liability companies [Problema peredachi polnomochiy edinolichnogo ispolnitel’nogo organa v obshchestvakh s ogranichennoj otvetstvennost’yu] // Notarial Bulletin [Notarial’nyj vestnik]. No. 7. 2022 // Legal Information System «ConsultantPlus».

Subject/Topic This article examines the contemporary constitutional systems of Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, Iran, Turkey, and Algeria, where Muslim majorities constitute the overwhelming majority of citizens, and examines the correlation between the number of citizens’ rights and the extent to which Islam is embedded in the constitution. The focus is on constitutional and legal aspects.

Goals/Objectives The aim of this study is to analyze the relationship between universal human rights and Islamic legal thought in the constitutions of modern Muslim-majority countries. To achieve this goal, a comparative analysis of the constitutions was conducted, the balance of religious influence was assessed, and the correlation between the number of human rights and the degree of Islamic penetration was examined.

Methodology The methodology is based on primary source and literature analysis, as well as comparative and correlational analysis. A formal legal approach is also used.

Conclusions The study provided an answer to the question of what can be considered an example of an Islamic constitution, and developed criteria and characteristics of an Islamic constitution. The analysis revealed the influence of Islamic discourse on the content of modern constitutions, as well as the degree of integration of human rights standards into basic laws.

Keywords: Islamic constitutionalism, Sharia, comparative constitutional studies, draft Islamic constitution, human rights, democracy, Islamization, colonialism.

References:

Armstrong (2013) – Armstrong K. The Battle for God: The History of Fundamentalism [Bitva za Boga: Istoriya fundamentalizma: monografiya]. M.: Alpina non-fiction, 2013. P. 502.

Khalyak (2020) – Khalyak V. History of Islamic Theories of Law: Introduction to the Sunni Theory of Law [Istoriya islamskikh teoriy prava: vvedeniye v sunnitskuyu teoriyu prava]. M.: Publishing House of the Higher School of Economics, 2020. P. 464.

Huntington (2025) – Huntington S. Clash of Civilizations [Stolknoveniye tsivilizatsiy]. M.: AST, 2025. P. 640.

Berman (2003) – Terror and Liberalism. N.Y.: W.W. Norton, 2003. P. 242.

Hamid (2001) – Hamid Khan. Constitutional and Political History of Pakistan. Oxford University Press, 2001, P. 692.

John (1996) – John L. EspositoIslam and Democracy. Oxford University Press, 1996, P. 240.

Karim (2018) – Karim Atassi. Syria, the Strength of an Idea: The Constitutional Architectures of Its Political Regimes. Oxford University Press, 2018, P. 514.

Moamen (2013) – Moamen Gouda. Islamic Constitutionalism and Rule of Law: A Constitutional Economics perspective // Constitutional Political Economy. 2013. № 24 (1). P. 57-85.

Pietro (2019) – Pietro Longo. Theory and Practice in Islamic Constitutionalism: From Classical Fiqh to Modern Systems. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press LLC, 2019. P. 378.

The subject of this article concerns issues related to the educational environment, the formation of the personality of citizens of Russia, and their reflection in the concept of the state’s national security.

The purpose of this work is to analyze the factors influencing the upbringing of a harmoniously developed and socially responsible individual based on the traditional spiritual and moral guidelines of Russian society. The author pays special attention to the prioritization of this task by the state authorities and the establishment of value system priorities in a number of strategic documents and directives of the Head of State, which concern the improvement of the education system and ensuring sustainable development of the country. This is examined through the prism of educational activities, which in Russia are regulated by relevant legislation that is dynamically evolving, and the educational environment within which the formation and adjustment of the personality of a Russian citizen occurs in accordance with qualities demanded by the state and legislated by acts of the President of Russia. The author hypothetically connects these processes by suggesting that the educational environment, in which a person is immersed at various stages of their development, shapes their individuality and orientation, eliminates deviations, and consolidates positive tendencies. Ultimately, a patriot and professional, possessing other state-valued qualities, becomes the goal and strategic priority of the state’s national security.

Methodology Analysis, synthesis, problem formulation, hypothesis construction.

Conclusion With a balanced and safe educational environment ensuring the phased formation of the personality of a Russian citizen endowed with specified qualities, in accordance with the provisions of the National Security Strategy of the Russian Federation, the assurance of priority national interests is considered one of the key tasks of state legal policy in the long term.

Keywords: strategic national priority, safety of the educational environment, personal qualities of a citizen, personality education, harmonious development, social responsibility, traditional Russian spiritual and moral values.

References:

Giriko (2024) – Girko S.I. Comprehensive Security of the Educational Environment as a Strategic National Priority of the Russian Federation. Administrative Law and Process. [Komplexnaja bezopasnost obrazovatelnoi sredi, kak strategicheskij natsionalnij prioritet Rossijskoi Federatsii]. 2024. No. 7.

Krivykh (2011) – Krivykh, S.V. The Relationship between the Concepts of “Environment” and “Space” in the Sociocultural and Educational Aspects [Sootnoshenije poniatij «sreda» I «prostranstvo» v sociokulturnom I obrazovatelnom aspektah] / S.V. Krivykh // World of Science, Culture, and Education. — 2011. No. 2.

Novikova (1985) – Novikova L.I. School and Environment [Shkola i sreda]. Moscow: Znanie Publishing House. 1985. 80 p.

Ozhegov, Shvedova (2001) – Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language. M.: ITI Technologies Publishing House. 2006. 944 p.

Yasvin (2001) – Yasvin V.A. Educational Environment: From Modeling to Design [Obrazovatelnaja sreda: ot modelirovanija k proektirovaniju] / V.A. Yasvin. – M.: Smysl, 2001.

Vygotsky (1991) – Vygotsky L.S. Pedagogical Psychology [Pedagogicheskaja psihologija]/ edited by V.V. Davydov. – M.: Pedagogika, 1991. 480 p.

Kirsanov, Petroshenko (2014) – Kirsanov A.I., Petroshenko A.I. Legal Education of High School Students: Current State and Problems of Improvement [Pravovoe vospitanie starshih shkolnikov: sostoijanie I problemy sovershenstvovanija] // Law and Education. No. 5 – Moscow: SGA. 2014.

Giriko, Bezuglaya, Mazein (2025) – Giriko S.I., Bezuglaya A.A., and Mazein A.V. Public Associations Established with the Participation of the State as Special Subjects of National Security [Obshestvennije objedinenija, sozdannie s uchastiem gosudarstva, kak osobije subjekty natsionalnoy bezopasnosty]. Proceedings of the Academy of Management of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia. 2025. No. 2 (74).

The subject/topic The article is devoted to the study of theoretical aspects and law enforcement problems that arise when implementing detention as a measure of state coercion.

Goals/objectives The author states that, despite the similar legal nature of administrative procedural and criminal procedural detention, the actual aspects of their implementation in relation to certain groups of offenders have significant differences, and in some cases, regulatory gaps. The main objective of the comparative analysis of the provisions of the Administrative Code of the Russian Federation, the Criminal Procedure Code of the Russian Federation, as well as a number of other regulatory legal acts is the theoretical justification of existing legal uncertainties, as well as the development of practical proposals aimed at overcoming them in order to ensure the principle of legality in the activities of officials authorized to implement this measure of state coercion.

Methodology When preparing the article, the author used general scientific and private scientific methods of cognition. The dialectical method made it possible to explore a system of interrelated legal prescriptions that serve as grounds for restricting the personal freedom of offenders, in order to identify gaps and contradictions existing in regulatory legal acts; the comparative legal method made it possible, by comparing various legal sources, to identify and substantiate the similarities and differences existing between administrative procedural and criminal procedural detention; The formal legal method was used in the analysis of legislative norms.

Results/conclusions An element of the scientific novelty of the conducted research is the sectoral classification of the grounds for detention of offenders proposed by the author, as well as the allocation of an “out-of-process” form in it, the definition of the specifics of its implementation, as well as the accompanying regulatory uncertainties and gaps that have a significant negative impact on law enforcement practice.

Keywords: state coercion, detention, legal uncertainty, legal conflicts, legality.

References:

Ozhegova (2022) – Ozhegova, G.A. On the Issue of State Coercion [K voprosu o gosudarstvennom prinuzhdenii] // State Power and Local Self-Government // [Gosudarstvennaya vlast’ i mestnoe samoupravlenie]. – 2020. – No. 12. – Pp. 22-28.

Puchnin (2000) – Puchnin, A.S. Coercion and Law: Diss. … Candidate of Legal Sciences. Tambov, 2000. 234 p.

Ilyin (2006) – Ilyin, I.A. On Resisting Evil by Force // The Path of Spiritual Renewal: Works of Different Years. St. Petersburg: Bibliopolis, 2006. Pp. 394-396.

Leist (1981) – Leist, O.E. Sanctions and Responsibility under Soviet Law (Theoretical Issues). Moscow: Moscow University Press, 1981. 240 p.

Kozulin (1986) – Kozulin, A.I. Legal coercion (the legal principles of state coercion in Soviet society): abstract of the dissertation of the candidate. jurid. sciences’. Sverdlovsk, 1986. 16 p

Makareiko (2025) – Makareiko, N.V. A measure of state coercion [Mera gosudarstvennogo prinuzhdeniya] //  Legal science and practice: Bulletin of the Nizhny Novgorod Academy of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia // [YUridicheskaya nauka i praktika: Vestnik Nizhegorodskoj akademii MVD Rossii]. – 2025. – Vol. 70, No. 2. – Pp. 74-77.

Rogov (2013) – Rogov, A.P. Features of state coercion in a rule-of-law state: abstract. diss … Candidate of Sciences. jurid. Sciences : 12.00.01. – Saratov, 2013. – 27 p.

Ponikarov (2009) – Ponikarov, V.A. Theoretical and Applied Foundations of the Organization and Implementation of Administrative and Jurisdictional Activities in the Penitentiary System of the Russian Federation : Abstract of Dissertation … Dr. Law. Sciences: 12.00.14. – Ryazan, 2009. – 53 p.

Kaplunov (2005) – Kaplunov, A.I. Administrative Coercion Applied by Internal Affairs Bodies (System-Legal Analysis): Abstract of Dissertation … Dr. Law. Sciences: 12.00.14. – Moscow, 2005. – 60 p.

Ovcharova (2021) – Ovcharova, E.V. Administrative coercion for violation of tax legislation in the Russian Federation as an element of the mechanism of legal regulation in the field of taxes and fees: abstract of the dissertation of Dr. jurid. Sciences : 12.00.14. – Moscow, 2021. – 51 p.

Romankova (2017) – Romankova, S.A. Administrative coercion used by the police in the field of traffic: abstract of the dissertation of the candidate. jurid. Sciences : 12.00.14. – Omsk, 2017. – 23 p.

Butorina (2013) – Butorina, L.S. Administrative coercion used against minors: abstract of the dissertation of the candidate. jurid. Sciences : 12.00.14. – Moscow, 2013. – 31 p.

Ogienko (2019) – Ogienko, A.S. Administrative and legal coercion in the field of migration: abstract of the dissertation of the candidate. jurid. sciences : 12.00.14. – Moscow, 2019. – 28 p.

Baryshev (2007) – Baryshev, V.V. The Institute of Administrative Coercion: the Correlation of Material and Procedural Law: author. dis. … cand. jurid. sciences : 12.00.14. – Rostov-on-Don, 2007. – 27 p.

Sharaeva (2018) – Sharaeva, Ya.A. Calculation of the Period of Detention of a Person Suspected of Committing a Crime [Ischislenie sroka zaderzhaniya lica, podozrevaemogo v sovershenii prestupleniya] // Law: History and Modernity // [Pravo: istoriya i sovremennost’]. 2018. No. 2. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/ischislenie-sroka-zaderzhaniya-litsa-podozrevaemogo-v-sovershenii-prestupleniya (date of access: 12.11.2025).

Vashaev (2025) – Vashaev, M.A. Problematic Issues of Normative Regulation of Administrative Detention in the Activities of Internal Affairs Bodies (Police) [Problemnye voprosy normativnogo regulirovaniya administrativnogo zaderzhaniya v deyatel’nosti organov vnutrennih del (policii)] // Bulletin of the Moscow University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia // [Vestnik Moskovskogo universiteta MVD Rossii]. – 2025. – No. 3. – Pp. 30-33.

Bezentsev (2025) – Bezentsev, A.A. Legality in Administrative Detention and Personal Search: Features of Implementation [Zakonnost’ pri administrativnom zaderzhanii i lichnom dosmotre: osobennosti realizacii] // Bulletin of the All-Russian Institute for Advanced Training of Employees of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation // [Vestnik Vserossijskogo instituta povysheniya kvalifikacii sotrudnikov Ministerstva vnutrennih del Rossijskoj Federacii]. – 2025. – No. 1(73). – Pp. 55-63.

Annotation

Subject/topic The article examines the admissibility of evidence obtained through automated systems for recording administrative offenses, as an element of a comprehensive set of measures aimed at preventing and reducing road traffic accidents. Analysis of current legislation and the specifics of law enforcement practices in the field of recording administrative offenses and bringing offenders to administrative responsibility.

Goal/objectives The aim of the study is to analyze key issues related to: the recording of administrative offenses using automated technical systems; the admissibility of evidence obtained via automated recording systems in administrative offense proceedings; developing proposals to improve legislation in order to enhance the effectiveness of authorized executive bodies in preventing and reducing road traffic accidents.

Methodology In preparing the article, the following methods were employed: general scientific methods: observation, comparison, description, analysis, and synthesis; specific scientific methods: formal-legal and historical-legal approaches.

Results/conclusions An analysis of legislation and established practices in the Russian Federation indicates that there is currently a need to adopt comprehensive measures in the area of recording administrative offenses via automated technical means. These measures should be aimed at preventing and reducing road traffic accidents on public roads throughout the Russian Federation.

Keywords: administrative offenses, automatic recording, road traffic, vehicle owners.

References:

Stepanenko, Zhuravlev (2025) – Stepanenko Y.V., Zhuravlev V.V. Legal uncertainty and uncertainty of law: comparative analysis. [Pravovaja neopredelennost’ i neopredelennost’ prava: sravnitel’nyj analiz] // The modern lawyer. 2025. № 3 (52).

Stepanenko, Chepurny (2018) – Stepanenko Y.V., Chepurny D.A. Revisiting the question of the organization of administrative jurisdictional proceedings in the activities of state traffic police departments. [K voprosu ob organizatsii administrativno‑yurisdiktsionnogo proizvodstva v deyatel’nosti Gosavtoinspektsii] // The modern lawyer. 2018. № 1 (22).

Rudakov (2022) – Rudakov B.V. Modern special technical means of automatic recording of traffic rule violations and problems of their application. [Sovremennye spetsial’nye tekhnicheskie sredstva avtomaticheskoi fiksatsii administrativnykh pravonarushenii Pravil dorozhnogo dvizheniia i problemy ikh primeneniia] // Legal and Order: History, Theory, Practice. 2022. №1 (32).

Maiorov, Dymberov, Molchanov (2016) – Maiorov, V.I., Dymberov, A.D., Molchanov, P. V. The legal problems of using the special technical means of automatic photographic and video recording of traffic rules violations. [Pravovye problemy primeneniia spetsial’nykh tekhnicheskikh sredstv avtomaticheskoi fotovideofiksatsii narushenii pravil dorozhnogo dvizheniia] // Legal Science and Law Enforcement Practice. 2016. 3(37).

Stepanenko, Kotlyarov (2018) – Stepanenko Y.V., Kotlyarov Y.V. The problem of the formation of the supernational system of technical regulations in the Russian Federation [Problemy formirovanija nadnacional’noj sistemy aktov tehnicheskogo regulirovanija v Rossijskoj Federacii] // The modern lawyer. 2018. № 2 (23).

Klimovich, Kuznetsov (2015) – Klimovich, E.V., & Kuznetsov, A.V. About some legal regulation problems special technical means for registering traffic violations. [O nekotorykh problemakh pravovogo regulirovaniia primeneniia spetsial’nykh tekhnicheskikh sredstv fiksatsii narushenii pravil dorozhnogo dvizheniia] // Law and Order: Theory, History, Practice. 2015. №1(4).

Dymberov (2018) – Dymberov, A.D. About some issues of administrative liability of vehicle owners for traffic offenses [O nekotorykh voprosakh administrativnoi otvetstvennosti sobstvennikov (vladel’tsev) transportnykh sredstv za pravonarusheniia v oblasti dorozhnogo dvizheniia] // Bulletin of the Moscow University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia. 2018. №2.

Subject/Topic. The object of this scientific study is the social relations that develop in Russia in connection with the use of baby boxes. The subject of this study, in turn, is the relevant materials from law enforcement practice and scholarly works devoted to the development of the chosen topic.

Objectives/Task. The goal is to identify problematic aspects of the state and prospects for the introduction of baby boxes in the Russian Federation.

Methodology. The primary methods used in this research were the formal legal method, the logical method, systemic-structural analysis, and observation. The author also employed legal forecasting and legal modeling.

Conclusion. The scientific novelty of this study lies in its in-depth analysis of the specifics of the implementation and use of baby boxes in Russia, as well as the formulation of conclusions regarding the possible legal regulation of their use in the Russian Federation. As a key outcome of this study, the author developed targeted recommendations for the creation of a legal model for the use of baby boxes in Russia.

Key words: baby box, legislative regulation of the practice of using baby boxes, Russia, the use of baby boxes, the experience of actual use of baby boxes.

References:

Varaksina (2020) – Varaksina N.V. A box for a child, or some aspects of the implementation of the “baby box” project in Russia. [Yashchik dlya rebenka, ili nekotoryye aspekty realizatsii v Rossii proyekta «bebi-boks»] // Diary of sciences. – 2020. – No. 11. – P. 1-8.

Danilova (2023) – Danilova I.S. Application of the “baby box” system in the Russian Federation: theory and practice of law enforcement. [Primeneniye sistemy «bebi-boksov» v Rossiyskoy Federatsii: teoriya i praktika pravoprimeneniya] // Wise lawyer. – 2023. – No. 12. – P. 110-116.

Karelina (2017) – Karelina E.M. On the issue of using baby boxes in Russia. [K voprosu ob ispol’zovanii bebi-boksov v Rossii] // Economy and society. – 2017. – No. 5-2 (36). – pp. 1138-1141.

Kondrashova (2016) – Kondrashova M.A. The Institute of “Baby Boxes” for Newborns as One of the Ways of Exercising Family Rights and Fulfilment of Duties. [Institut «Bebi-boksov» dlya novorozhdennykh kak odin iz sposobov osushchestvleniya semeynykh prav i ispolneniya obyazannostey] // Bulletin of the Saratov State Law Academy. – 2016. – No. 3 (110) -. P. 67-70.

Roldugin (2017) – Roldugin A. V. “Baby boxes” (“Windows of life”) as one of the approaches to saving children in difficult life situations: the experience of Russia. [«Bebi-boksy» («Okna zhizni») kak odin iz podkhodov k spaseniyu detey v trudnykh zhiznennykh situatsiyakh: opyt Rossii] // Young scientist. – 2017. – No. 7 (141). – P. 531-533.

Kovalevsky (2015) – Kovalevsky V.I. “A Box for a Child”, or Some Aspects of the Implementation of the “Baby Box” Project in Russia [«Yashchik dlya rebenka», ili Nekotoryye aspekty realizatsii v Rossii proyekta «bebi-boks»] // Modern Law. – 2015. – No. 12. – P. 1-7.

Gaisina (2015) – Gaisina A.R. Baby box project – pros and cons. [Proekt bebi-boks – za i protiv] // Economy and society. – 2016. – No. 11-2 (30). – pp. 21-24.

Zapadnova (2015) – Zapadnova Yu.A. Is it possible to consider the “baby box” as a measure to prevent child abuse? [Vozmozhno li schitat’ «baby box» meroy profilaktiki zhestokogo obrashcheniya s det’mi?] // Politics, state and law. – 2015. – No. 5. – P. 110-118.

Abstract

Subject/Topic The article highlights the regulatory framework of personal data in automated legal proceedings, their concepts, classes, legal regimes, legal features of their use and disclosure to third parties who are not participants in the judicial process.

Purpose To reveal the content and the modes of personal data in automated legal proceedings compared to the modes of personal data in other restricted access modes.

Methods The methodological basis of this study is based on the methods of consistency and analysis.

Results defined content and procedure for legal regulation of personal data in the automated legal system, identified regimes of publicly available, conditionally impersonal, impersonal, publicly inaccessible and inaccessible personal data. Proposed introduction of an additional legal regime – personal data of non-automated accounting.

Conclusions Personal data regimes in automated legal proceedings require detailed analysis and clear legal regulation in order to protect human and civil rights and freedoms, which are primary to openness and transparency of legal proceedings, and therefore it is necessary to exclude automated accounting of personal data of citizens in published judicial acts.

Keywords: personal data, automated legal proceedings, secrecy, confidentiality, privacy.

References:

Proskuryakova (2016) – Proskuryakova M.I. The constitutional and legal framework for the protection of personal data in Russia [Konstitucionno-pravovye ramki zashchity personal’nyh dannyh v Rossii] Bulletin of St. Petersburg University // [Vestnik Sankt-Peterburgskogo universiteta. Pravo]. – 2016. № 2. pp. 12–27.

Lovcov (2017) – Lovcov D.A., Fedichev A.V. Architecture of the national classifier of legal regimes of restricted access information [Arhitektura nacional’nogo klassifikatora pravovyh rezhimov informacii ogranichennogo dostupa] // Legal informatics [Pravovaya informatika]. – № 2 – 2017. pp. 35-54.

Bachilo (2015) – Bachilo I.L. On the methodology of identification and classification of the conceptual framework in information law [O metodologii vyyavleniya i klassifikacii ponyatijnogo apparata v informacionnom prave] // The conceptual apparatus of information law [Ponyatijnyj apparat informacionnogo prava] / Collection of scientific papers. – M.: IGP RAS – Publishing house «Canon+» ROOI «Rehabilitation». – 2015. pp. 8-18.

Lovcov (2009) – Lovcov D.A. Conceptual and logical modeling of the legal concept of «secret» [Konceptual’no-logicheskoe modelirovanie yuridicheskogo ponyatiya «tajna» Information law [Informacionnoe parvo]. 2009. № 2. pp. 12–14.

Saf’yannikov (2022) – Safyannikov A.V. Anonymized data: is there a future in Russia? [Obezlichennye dannye: est’ li budushchee v Rossii?] // Bulletin of Economic Justice of the Russian Federation [Vestnik ehkonomicheskogo pravosudiya Rossiiskoi Federatsii]. – 2022. № 9. pp. 55-74.

Chelmakina (2021) – Chelmakina M.A. The concept of private life in constitutional law [Ponyatie chastnoj zhizni v konstitucionnom prave] Electronic scientific journal «Science. Society. The State» [Elektronnyj nauchnyj zhurnal «Nauka. Obshchestvo. Gosudarstvo»] – 2021. Volume 9. № 1 (33) pp. 139-148.

Subject/Topic. The article examines machine-readable law as an instrument for ensuring legal certainty in the legal systems of the Russian Federation, the European Union and the People’s Republic of China, focusing on the relationship between formalised legal models, the rule of law and digital justice.

Purpose/Objectives. The aim is to compare institutional models of machine-readable law in the three jurisdictions through the lens of legal certainty; the objectives include clarifying doctrinal and regulatory approaches, identifying key infrastructural elements and assessing their impact on the scope of discretion.

Methodology. The study relies on analysis, synthesis, induction and deduction combined with formal-legal, comparative-legal and systemic-structural methods, which make it possible to treat machine-readability as part of a unified digital legal infrastructure.

Results/Conclusions. It is shown that in Russia machine-readable law is emerging as an auxiliary layer of formalisation with the primacy of statutory text; in the EU it is integrated into “better regulation”, RegTech and SupTech regimes, enabling standardisation of regulatory data; in China it is implemented mainly through the infrastructure of “smart courts”, reinforcing uniform case law and vertical control. The article argues that machine-readability enhances protection against arbitrary discretion only when embedded in the framework of the rule of law, accompanied by transparency of formal models and preserved judicial review, which allows for criteria to evaluate national strategies in this field.

Keywords: machine-readable law, legal certainty, digital justice, rule of law, automation of law enforcement, RegTech, SupTech, smart courts.

References:

Berezina (2025) – Berezina E. A. Machine-readable format of legal documents: development and application in foreign states [Mashinochitaemyi format yuridicheskikh dokumentov: razrabotka i primenenie v zarubezhnykh gosudarstvakh] // Actual Problems of Russian Law. 2025. Vol. 20, # 3. P. 25–41.

Ponkin (2021) – Ponkin I. V. The concept of machine-readable law [Kontsept mashinochitaemogo prava] // Legal Technique. 2021. # 15. P. 231–236.

Perevozkin (2024) – Perevozkin A. A. Theoretical and legal characteristics of machine-readable law [Teoretiko-pravovaia kharakteristika mashinochitaemogo prava] // Actual Problems of Russian Law. 2024. Vol. 19, # 8. P. 22–37.

Wang, Qu (2024) – Wang P., Qu G. AI in court: the promotion and regulation of information technology in China’s Smart Court movements // Artificial Intelligence and International Human Rights Law: Developing Standards for a Changing World / ed. by M. Balcerzak, J. Kapelańska-Pręgowska. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2024. P. 309–324.

Reiling, Papagianneas (2025) – Reiling A. D., Papagianneas S. Lessons from China’s Smart Court Reform? // International Journal for Court Administration. 2025. Vol. 16, # 1. P. 1–19.

Usachev (2021) – Usachev A. A. Legal certainty as the basis of criminal proceedings: from theory to legislation improvement [Pravovaia opredelennost’ kak osnova ugolovnogo sudoproizvodstva: ot teorii k sovershenstvovaniiu zakonodatel’stva] // Actual Problems of Russian Law. 2021. Vol. 16, # 8 (129). P. 129–140.

Zelenskaya (2023) – Zelenskaya L. A. Some issues of prospects for the use of “electronic justice”: experience of the Russian Federation and foreign countries [Otdel’nye voprosy perspektivy ispol’zovaniia “elektronnogo pravosudiia”: opyt Rossiiskoi Federatsii i zarubezhnykh stran] // Theory and Practice of Social Development. 2023. # 10. P. 214–219.

Myakhanova, Gunzynov (2024) – Myakhanova A. N., Gunzynov Zh. P. Organization of a “smart court”: Chinese experience [Organizatsiia “umnogo suda”: kitaiskii opyt] // Bulletin of Buryat State University. Jurisprudence. 2024. # 3. P. 71–77.

Balchindorzhieva, Myakhanova, Sapkeev (2023) – Balchindorzhieva O. B., Myakhanova A. N., Sapkeev D. V. Philosophical-legal and ethical aspects of organizing a “smart court”: Chinese experience [Filosofsko-pravovye i eticheskie aspekty organizatsii “umnogo suda”: kitaiskii opyt] // Bulletin of Buryat State University. Philosophy. 2023. # 3. P. 70–76.

Momotov (2021) – Momotov V. V. Artificial intelligence in legal proceedings: current state and prospects of use [Iskusstvennyi intellekt v sudoproizvodstve: sostoianie, perspektivy ispol’zovaniia] // Vestnik of Kutafin Moscow State Law University (MSAL). 2021. # 5 (81). P. 188–191.

Khokhlova, Duvayarova (2022) – Khokhlova E. M., Duvayarova S. A. Legal culture and digitalization of modern society [Pravovaia kul’tura i tsifrovizatsionnoe sovremennoe obshchestvo] // Problemy prava (Issues of Law). 2022. # 4 (87). P. 14–19.

Subject/topic Digital financial instruments in the BRICS countries, primarily digital currencies of central banks (DCBs), cryptocurrencies, and related infrastructure solutions.

Goals/objectives Identification of key features of foreign models of digital currency regulation in the jurisdictions under consideration and identification of opportunities for their harmonization to strengthen the financial sovereignty of countries.

Conclusion China is demonstrating the most advanced model: the digital yuan has already been recognized as a legal tender and is being actively tested in mass and cross-border payments. Brazil is in a phase of intensive development: the crypto market is comprehensively regulated, but the Drex digital currency is still being tested and does not have legal status as a means of payment. Russia occupies an intermediate position: the digital ruble is legally fixed, but the actual scope of its use is limited, cryptocurrencies are prohibited in national payments, and experimental legal regimes for cross-border settlements are being launched. The general direction of development in all three countries is related to strengthening financial sovereignty and reducing dependence on private crypto tools and foreign payment systems.

Keywords: financial sovereignty, financial technologies, cross-border settlements, digital currencies of central banks, smart contracts, KYC control.

References:

Bunich (2024) – Bunich G.A. Financial Technologies and Innovations in International Practice // World Economy and World Finance. [Finansovie tekhnologii i innovatsii v mezhdunarodnoi praktike // Mirovaya ekonomika i mirovie finansi]. 2024. №. 3. P. 37-44.

Ismailov (2024) – Ismailov I.Sh. Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDC) as a New Institution of Digital Monetary Circulation: Legal Essence, History, and Foreign Experience // Bulletin of the Kutafin University (MSAL). [Tsifrovie valyuti tsentralnikh bankov (CBDC) kak novii institut tsifrovogo denezhnogo obrashcheniya: pravovaya sushchnost, istoriya, zarubezhnii opit // Vestnik Universiteta imeni O.E. Kutafina (MGYuA)]. 2024. № 9(121). P. 73-81.

Kochergin (2024) – Kochergin D.A. Global Experience in the Implementation of Central Bank Digital Currencies for Retail Payments in Emerging and Developing Countries // Bulletin of the Institute of Economics of the Russian Academy of Sciences [Mirovoi opit vnedreniya tsifrovikh valyut tsentralnikh bankov dlya roznichnikh platezhei v stranakh s formiruyushchimsya rinkom i razvivayushchikhsya stranakh // Vestnik Instituta ekonomiki Rossiiskoi akademii nauk]. 2024. № 5. P. 130-171.

Krylov (2025) – Krylov D.S. Digital transformation of the United Arab Emirates as an instrument of national modernization and foreign policy strategy (2023-2025) // Russia and the Muslim world. [Tsifrovaya transformatsiya Obedinennikh Arabskikh Emiratov kak instrument natsionalnoi modernizatsii i vneshnepoliticheskoi strategii (2023–2025) // Rossiya i musulmanskii mir.] — 2025. — №2 (336). — P. 54-64.

Sannikova (2025) – Sannikova L.V. Legal Foundations of Central Banks’ Digital Currencies and the Digital Ruble // Financial Journal. [Legal Foundations of Central Banks’ Digital Currencies and the Digital Ruble // Financial Journal.]. 2023. Vol. 15. №. 5. P. 27–44.